The Effects of Escalating Commitment on Ethical Decision-Making

Although scholars have invoked the escalation framework as a means of explaining the occurrence of numerous organizationally undesirable behaviors on the part of decision makers, to date no empirical research on the potential influences of escalating commitment on the likelihood of unethical behavior at the individual level of analysis has been reported in either the escalation or the ethical decision-making literatures. Thus, the main purpose of this project is to provide a theoretical foundation and empirical support for the contention that escalating commitment situations can induce unethical behavior in decision makers. An experimental research design utilizing a computerized investment task was administered to 155 undergraduate business majors as a means of assessing the hypotheses presented here. Results from a hierarchical logistic regression analysis found strong support for the contention that exposure to an escalation situation increases the likelihood of unethical behavior on the part of decision makers. Further, results also supported previous ethical decision-making findings by confirming the effects of locus of control (LOC) on ethical behavior. Specifically, the data indicated that individuals with an external LOC orientation were significantly more likely to select the unethical option than were individuals with an internal LOC orientation. Interestingly, support was not found for the effects of Machiavellianism or gender on ethical decision-making.     

Seeking redress for consumer dissatisfaction: The role of attitudes and situational factors

The value of consumer complaints in consumer protection and in the effective management of the firm has been demonstrated. This paper reports a survey of Dutch consumers to determine the extent to which consumer attitudes toward seeking redress through complaints is correlated with actual complaint behavior. It concludes that situation-specific factors are stronger influences on whether consumers complain than general attitudes and discusses how these factors can be used to encourage legitimate consumer complaints.

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Reaktionen bei Verbraucher-Unzufriedenheit: Die Rolle von Einstellungen und situativen Faktoren

Zusammenfassung Es ist erwiesen, daß Verbraucherbeschwerden sowohl für den Schutz des Verbrauchers wie auch für eine effektive Unternehmensführung von Bedeutung sind. Der vorliegende Beitrag berichtet über eine Untersuchung bei 304 holländischen Verbrauchern zu der Frage, in welchem Ausmaße die Einstellungen von Verbrauchern zu Beschwerdeverhalten zusammenhängen mit dem tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten. Einstellungen wurden dabei über eine 15-item-Skala gemessen, die einer Faktoren-Analyse unterzogen wurde und drei Bereiche erfaßt: (a) gesellschaftliche Normen über Beschwerdeverhalten, (b) Kosten und Mühen des Beschwerdeverhaltens und (c) vermutliche Ansprechbarkeit der Verkäufer durch Verbraucherbeschwerden.Eine multiple Regressions-Analyse ergab eine signifikante, jedoch nur schwache Beziehung zwischen dem ersten Einstellungsfaktor und einer Beschwerde-Neigung, die erfaßt wurde als allgemeine Selbsteinschätzung hinsichtlich der Tendenz, bei Unzufriedenheiten mit Beschwerdeverhalten zu reagieren. Es zeigte sich keine signifikante Beziehung zwischen den drei Einstellungsfaktoren und dem Beschwerdeverhalten aufgrund einer spezifischen Verbraucherunzufriedenheit. Weitere Analysen zeigten, daß vielmehr vier situative Variable in signifikanter Beziehung zum tatsächlichen Beschwerdeverhalten stehen, nämlich (a) der Produktpreis, (b) die Schwere des Problems mit einem nicht-zufriedenstellenden Produkt, (c) die wahrgenommene Mühe, die durch eine Beschwerde verursacht wird, und (d) die wahrgenommene Bereitschaft des Verkäufers, die Unzufriedenheit zu beseitigen.Die Ergebnisse dieser Untersuchung und Befunde früherer Untersuchungen legen den Schluß nahe, daß das Beschwerdeverhalten bei Unzufriedenheit eher von situationsspezifischen Faktoren beeinflußt wird als von generellen Einstellungen. Solche generellen Einstellungen können jedoch das Beschwerdeverhalten über längere Zeit bei einer größeren Zahl von Unzufriedenheits-Fällen beeinflussen. Der Beitrag schließt mit einer Erörterung, wie Verbraucher bei berechtigter Unzufriedenheit zu Beschwerden ermuntert werden können, und welche zusätzlichen Forschungslücken geschlossen werden müssen.

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Marsha L. Richins is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA. Bronislaw J. Verhage is an Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Management, Poortweg 6, NL-2612 PA Delft, The Netherlands.     

Testing Gibrat’s Law for Small, Young and Innovating Firms

This article analyses whether small, young, and innovating firms have experienced a greater employment growth than other Spanish firms over the period 1990–2000. The study draws upon a sample of 1272 manufacturing firms in which only 967 of the firms survived for the entire ten year period. The analyses test Gibrat’s law, both by least squares and by utilizing the procedure proposed by Heckman in which a probit survival equation is first estimated to correct for sample selection bias. Two estimators correcting for selection bias are utilized: one that incorporates the inverse Mill’s ratio and the other that employs maximum likelihood methods. All the results reject Gibrat’s law and support the proposition that small firms have grown larger. Additionally, the results show that old firms grow less than young ones, and innovating activity – both process and product – is a strong positive factor in the firm’s survival and its employment growth.     

The labor force of the future.

In the decades ahead, the US labor force will reflect changes in the industrial structure, with declines in some manufacturing industries and expansion in service industries. The services sector is so diverse that the jobs within it cannot be categorized as either high wage or low wage. The service-producing sector employs 85% of professional specialty workers in the US. In general, information on compensation trends indicates that greater increases in compensation have occurred for workers in service-producing as opposed to goods-producing industries. The increase in service sector jobs has created opportunities for women to enter the labor force and, at present, 5 out of 6 women work in this sector compared to fewer than 2 out of 3 men. Productivity growth rates in the service-producing industries vary substantially and are strongly affected by the business cycle. Central to employment opportunities in the years ahead will be the effect of new technology. To date, the aggregate effect of new technology has been increased employment and higher living standards. Although retraining programs should be in place, the scenario of a huge technology-created labor surplus seems unlikely. In fact, a more likely problem is a shortage of labor resulting from earlier labor force withdrawal and demographic aging of the population. Those in the 25-54-year age group will represent a larger share of the labor force in the years ahead. In addition, blacks are expected to account for 20% of the labor force growth in the next decade. Finally, given increasing labor force participation rates among mothers, employers may have to provide more flexible work schedules, assistance with day care, and more attractive benefits packages.     

Company–Community Agreements,Gender and Development

Company–community agreements are widely considered to be a practical mechanism for recognising the rights, needs and priorities of peoples impacted by mining, for managing impacts and ensuring that mining-derived benefits are shared. The use and application of company–community agreements is increasing globally. Notwithstanding the utility of these agreements, the gender dimensions of agreement processes in mining have rarely been studied. Prior research on women and mining demonstrates that women are often more adversely impacted by mining than men, and face greater challenges in accessing development opportunities that mining can bring. Nonetheless, there is currently little guidance for companies, government or communities in bringing a gender perspective to the fore in mining and agreement processes. It is undisputed in human development literature that investment in women and sensitivity to gender delivers long-term health, education and local development outcomes. In mining and development, a number of key factors remain unexplored. These include: women’s participation in agreement processes, the gendered distribution of agreement benefits, and the extent to which impacts and benefits influence women’s development and economic inclusion. This paper presents the results of the first phase of an applied research project undertaken by the Centre for Social Responsibility in Mining (CSRM) at The University of Queensland and funded by the Minerals Council of Australia (MCA) and the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). The project sought to connect with experienced practitioners who had been directly involved in mining and agreement processes to document and analyse grounded perspectives on gender dynamics and agreements, and connect those experiences with the broader literature. Findings from this study have implications for the role of mining companies and governments in promoting gender equality and empowerment as part of their commitments to sustainable development. They also have implications for community groups and their representatives in terms of how they might engage in agreement processes to maximise women’s participation and influence. In many social contexts, a key challenge will be navigating the territory of cultural norms and gender equality, particularly in cultures where women’s influence in the public sphere is not strong. The authors argue that without consideration of a gender perspective, including gender’s intersection with other factors such as class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age, mining agreements will not be inclusive, may exacerbate gender inequalities, and fail to contribute to long-term sustainable development.     

Broadening the Concept of International Entrepreneurship: Internationalisation, Networks and Politics

In this article, the situation where a company internationalises over an extended period without changing operation mode is explored. The focus of the empirical research is the Australian company CSR and its large-scale sugar exporting operations, which developed over a period of about 75 years. Because of the highly politicised nature of the sugar industry in many countries, CSR was called upon to make extensive investments in political networks in order to achieve its global sugar exporting operations. Overall the CSR experience demonstrates that it is possible to stretch the use of a given mode, although this may demand considerable creativity in market, network and policy responses of a kind which illustrate that international entrepreneurship may come in many guises, and may need to be viewed in a broader way.     

A model to explore the ethics of erotic stimuli in print advertising

This paper discusses a test of a hypothetical model of the role of perceived ethical feelings about the use of female nudity/erotic stimuli in print advertising. Specifically, the linkages between perceived ethicalness of the use of the print ad (as measured by the Reidenbach and Robin ethics scale) and attitude toward the ad, brand, and purchase intention are explored.     

Ethical beliefs of MIS professionals: The frequency and opportunity for unethical behavior

The frequency and opportunity for unethical behavior by MIS professionals is examined empirically. In addition, the importance of top management's ethical stance, one's sense of social responsibility and the existence of codes of ethics in determining perceptions of the frequency and opportunity for unethical behavior are tested.Results indicate that MIS professionals are perceived as having the opportunity to engage in unethical practices, but that they seldom do so. Additionally, successful MIS professionals are perceived as ethical. Finally, while company codes of ethics were uncommon, top management was seen as supporting high ethical standards. Scott J. Vitell is an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Mississippi. His publications have appeared in the Journal of Macromarketing, the Journal of Business Ethics, Research in Marketing, various national and regional proceedings, and elsewhere. Donald L. Davis is Associate Professor and Director of Management Information Systems Programs in the School of Business at The University of Mississippi. He has published in OMEGA, Journal of Operations Management, Human Systems Management and other journals. His current research interests are in user-system interfaces in DSS, expert systems, and nueral nets.